Traditional vehicles’ smiling curve
Car manufacturing
R&D
Design
Manu-
facturing
Marketing
Car Brands
Low
Value added
High
Far
Production chain/
customer proximity
Close
Autonomous vehicles’ smiling curve
AV fleet operators
AV technology
(hardware and
software)
R&D
Design
AV manu-
facturing
Marketing
Car Brands
Direct to
Consumer App &
Experience
Low
Value added
High
Far
Production chain/
customer proximity
Close

Source: adapted from R. Dingler, "Self-Driving Car Fleets: Transportation As A Service", Medium, 2019